Freshwater turtles are one of the most threatened groups of vertebrates in the world (Turtle Conservation Fund 2002; Buhlmann et al. 2009). Their slow pace of life, characterized by high potential adult survival, delayed maturity, and high fecundity, makes them particularly vulnerable to environmental change at different life history stages. Habitat destruction, alteration, and fragmentation (Gerlach 2008; Doupe et al. 2009; Usuda et al. 2012; Quesnelle et al. 2013), interactions with invasive species (Thompson 1983; Polo-Cavia et al. 2011; Pearson et al. 2015), and hybridization (Fong and Chen 2010; Xia et al. 2011; Parham et al. 2013) constitute major threats for freshwater turtles. However, pollution (Adams et al. 2016; Héritier et al. 2017; but see El Hassani et al. 2019), hook ingestion (Steen and Robinson 2017), collisions with motor vehicles (Spencer et al. 2017), and human disturbance of natural behaviors (Selman et al. 2013) can also affect natural populations.

Unregulated commercial harvest and bycatch mortality can be an issue for several species, particularly for rare or threatened ones (Brown et al. 2011; Lyons et al. 2013; Pantoja-Lima et al. 2014; Midwood et al. 2015). Besides their use by local communities as food (Tuberville et al. 2005; Pantoja-Lima et al. 2014), freshwater turtles can be exploited for various reasons such as commercialization as pets, use in traditional medicine, and religious rituals (Alves and Santana 2008; Jensen and Das 2008; Alves et al. 2009; Ferronato and Cruzado 2013; Lyons et al. 2013; Seateun et al. 2019).

The Hispaniolan slider, Trachemys decorata (Barbour & Carr 1940), is a freshwater turtle of conservation interest (Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 1996), endemic to the island of Hispaniola. Its distribution extends over the lakes in the Plaine de Cul de Sac and Valle de Neiba on both sides of the border between the Dominican Republic and Haiti, the Tiburon peninsula in Haiti, and the wetlands of Jaragua National Park in the Dominican Republic (Seidel and Incháustegui 1984; Fritz 1991; Powell et al. 2000). Little information exists on the conservation status of T. decorata. The species is currently listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, partly due to habitat destruction, with no update available since 1996 (Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 1996). Although Parham et al. (2013) documented hybridization with the invasive congeneric species Trachemys stejnegeri in the Dominican Republic, the magnitude of the phenomenon throughout the geographical range of the species remains undocumented. More recently, Paul et al. (2022) provided some information about the ecology and the conservation status of T. decorata in Haiti, showing that hybrids can be found in Haiti where natural populations are exposed to bycatch and commercialization by local fishers.

Hispaniolan sliders are sold at traditional outdoor markets in cities and villages in Haiti. However, there is little information on the turtle trade in Haiti, making it difficult to assess its extent and impact on natural populations (see Paul et al. 2022). In particular, the importance of local demand in relation to various uses remains largely undocumented. The unique and complex historical, environmental, religious, and cultural system of Haiti (Vonarx 2008; Merceron and Yelkouni 2012; Gentes and Vergara-Castro 2015; Amicy 2016; Etienne 2018) has a strong influence on people's attitudes toward nature, plants, and animals. Understanding how traditional medicine, religious beliefs, and customary usages underpin the demand for freshwater turtles can be of direct relevance to the conservation of T. decorata in Haiti and, more largely, to the general assessment of the effect of social and cultural context on conservation plans (see Waylen et al. 2010; Bhagwat et al. 2011; Infield et al. 2017).

Here we present new and original data on commercialization and various uses of T. decorata by human populations in Haiti in an ethnobiological context (Albuquerque et al. 2013). We particularly document the use of freshwater turtles commercialized at Trou Caïman, a wetland of conservation interest (Sergile 2008). We discuss the relevance of our observations for the management and conservation of T. decorata in Haiti.

METHODS

Study Area. —Trou Caïman (also locally known as Dlo Gaye, 18°39′N, 72°08′W) is a shallow, brackish lake covering approximately 1000 ha. The aquatic vegetation is mainly dominated by cattail, Typha domingensis, and to a lesser extent by rushes, Juncus sp., with some remnants of mangroves on the northeastern side of the lake (Sergile 2008). The lake is situated between 6 and 10 km from the much larger Lake Azuei and is connected to it through the Drain Boucan Brou that protects local populations from a sudden rise in water levels (Jeannot 2015). Trou Caïman (Fig. 1) is the fourth largest lake in Haiti (Michel 2000) and is an important place for resident and wintering waterbirds and shorebirds (Saint-Louis et al. 2021), as well as for a few endemic avian species of conservation interest (Sergile 2008). The village of Trou Caïman belongs to the “section communale” of Thomazeau in the Croix-desBouquets Arrondissement of the Western Department (Fig. 2). Local agriculture, consisting mainly of domestic food crops (beans, plantain, sweet potatoes, and other food tubers) and commerce are the main local economic activities. Although the commune of Thomazeau is only about 20 km west of Port-au-Prince, poor road conditions make traveling difficult and time consuming. As a consequence, the local community of about 50,000 people is relatively isolated and suffers from poverty and a lack of services.

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Procedures. — We collected data from October 2017 to February 2018 based on direct observations of the local population and on interviews with local people and owners of captive turtles. All interviews were conducted in creole by one of the authors (J.M.P.) as part of his research project for the obtention of the degree of “Ingénieur-Agronome” from the Université d'Etat d'Haïti.

Our sample consisted of 31 fishers (retired, seasonal, or active), 6 voodoo priests or practitioners, 7 fish and turtle merchants, 1 pastor (Bethel Church of Trou-Caïman), 4 influential elders (involved in the generational transmission of local culture), and 23 local lay people. Interviews followed the instructions and recommendations of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) for socioeconomic surveys in fisheries community (Pinello et al. 2017). All interviewed persons were informed of what data were collected and of the purpose of the collection. No participation reward, such as money or gifts, was provided to our respondents (Groves et al. 2006), as such practice can alter the representative sample population, information provided by the subject, or subject's perception of the survey, especially in poor countries such as Haiti (Lynn 2001; White et al. 2017).

RESULTS

Turtles can be sold directly by fishers or via a few specialized local retailers, typically women, who can accumulate several for a while (Fig. 3) before selling them to jeweler craftsmen or as pets on public markets in Croixdes-Bouquets or Port-au-Prince. We did not meet or hear of any fisherman specialized in the capture of freshwater turtles at Trou Caïman. Turtles are actually captured opportunistically by fishers each time they encounter one as a bycatch of fishing activity. Still, the species is of value to local fishers because there is a high and regular demand from people living around the lake. This value is exemplified by the multiple uses local communities make of the species.

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Meat Consumption. — The flesh and meat of T. decorata is much appreciated by the local population, which finds it particularly appetizing and tasty, as much as pork or beef. Of the 67 interviewed people, 66 (98.5%) declared to have eaten turtle meat at least once in their life. Regarded as high-quality meat by fishers, it is included in several local recipes as fried, grilled, or cooked in broth. Turtles are most often slaughtered in a brutal way. In order to force animal to extend its head forward, out of the carapace, a flame is placed under its tail. The head is then cut off with a sharp machete before both the plastron and carapace are removed to have access to the flesh. The meat is then cleaned and seasoned before cooking. Most parts of the animal are used for cooking. Turtle meat comes only as a complement to other sources of animal protein such a fish, chicken, or pork. Fishers regularly eat turtle meat just because they appreciate it or as part of their religious practice. However, such consumption seems to happen only once or twice a month per family, as fishers generally favor trading turtles for the voodoo ritual rather than keeping them for their own consumption.

Egg Consumption. — Less commonly, an omelette can be cooked from turtle eggs. Eggs can be collected in the wild or obtained from killed gravid females. Egg collection is a very popular hobby among local young children who actively search for eggs in planting furrows inside gardens situated around the lake in the afternoon after school time or during vacations. Once an egg is found, it is generally rapidly consumed as a snack between regular meals.

Artisanal Jewelry. — Craftsmen generally buy turtles from specialized retailers, although some of them may occasionally come to Trou Caïman to purchase turtles for a better price from a particular fisher they know. Polished whole turtle shells are regularly sold on the streets of Portau-Prince and Pétion-Ville to tourists and local people as home decorative pieces, as are larger shells of marine turtles. Pieces of shells are also used to make necklaces that are particularly sought after by voodoo practitioners. However, no craftsman or jewelry shop is specialized in turtle craft, and production remains limited.

Pet Trade. — Live turtles are regularly sold as pet animals to customers from the capital or other large cities, either directly by fishers or, most often, by specialized intermediary retailers. Only 4 of 31 (13%) interviewed fishers were in touch with some wealthy customers in Portau-Prince who directly purchased turtles as pets from them. Fishers can keep some turtles as pet animals for their own children for some time before eventually selling them. Most turtles kept as pets at Trou Caïman are underfed and in poor condition, with about 50% of them showing damaged carapace or body wounds (Fig. 4) compared with only 5% of wild individuals (Paul et al. 2022).

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Cleaning of Water Wells. — An original use of freshwater turtles is the purification of water. We regularly observed turtles placed inside hand-dug wells in private housings, where they are expected to consume insects and other aquatic invertebrates. Local people also believe that turtles can eat mud, which accumulates in the well over a period of time due to wall erosion. The use of turtles is then mainly considered as a way to improve the visual aspect of water in hand-dug wells. A major inconvenience reported by local people, however, is associated with the contamination of water by turtles that eventually die in hand-dug wells. Defecation and urination by turtles in the well appear to be less of an issue to local people than the dying of individual turtles. Water from hand-dug wells is essentially used for domestic purposes (cooking and laundry). This particular use of turtles is adopted by a majority of fishers, but also a large number of people, with the exception of those owning a pump-equipped well or a water storage basin.

Vodou Ritual and Folk Medicine. — The use of T. decorata in relation to Haitian culture and tradition deserves particular attention. The everyday use of turtles at Trou Caïman is tightly linked to the voodoo ritual and mysticism, which can take various forms (Table 1). Hougans (voodoo priests) and mambos (their female counterparts) have a large influence in the countryside, particularly within their own communities. They keep turtles in sacred pools (Basen-lwa) dedicated to voodoo spirits (lwas or loas), inside peristyles (voodoo temples). Turtles, alive or dead, can be used to support liminens (requests or expression of gratefulness towards spirits), as ouangas (magical weapons or a set of objects magically arranged to be used to hurt an enemy), or as a pwen, a supernatural force provided by a spirit, which provides both protection against attacks from others and the possibility to perform atrocities against them. Turtles are in particular used as preventive protection against lougarous. The lougarou in the Haitian countryside corresponds to a special form of evil incarnation. It refers to a person, generally a woman, with a vampiric character who is feared for her assaults on children.

Table 1. Different uses of Trachemys decorata in the vodou tradition.^a

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DISCUSSION

The present study illustrates the complexity of devising conservation strategies for endangered species of both cultural and subsistence importance in developing countries. Haiti is the poorest nation in the Western hemisphere and is highly dependent on the agricultural sector, which accounts for 20.4% of national Gross Domestic Product (World Bank 2021a, 2021b). The largest part of the population, especially in the rural environment, is facing high levels of food insecurity and significant material poverty (Glaeser et al. 2011). This is true of our study site, as most people living around Trou Caïman have low incomes. In particular, persistent decline in catch, in both quality (smaller fish) and quantity, as reported by a majority (74%) of interviewed local fishers during this study, has forced several of them to give up catching fish and engage in other activities such as working in factories, construction work, or cutting and trading wood. Similarly, the number of resellers around the lake is decreasing with decreasing fish catch. Fishing is increasingly regarded as a subsistence activity, insufficient to cover basic socio-economic needs, and most active fishers have a complementary activity such as working as a guide for tourists, photographers, or hunters or being a part-time moto-taxi driver.

Still, freshwater turtles are a sought-after resource for local people at Trou Caïman and probably in several other areas in Haiti. They can be purchased on various public markets from retailers of medicinal herbs that supply the medsen-fèy (herbal therapists) and voodoo practitioners. Such markets exist, for instance, in the capital town Portau-Prince at Hyppolite or Pétion-Ville (J.M. Exantus, pers. comm., May 2021) or in the vicinity of Lake Miragoane (J.M. Paul, pers. obs., December 2020). According to Klemens and Thorbjarnarson (1995), the meat and eggs of most, if not all, species of turtles and terrestrial tortoises, irrespective of their size, have served as human food at some point. The consumption of meat and or eggs from freshwater turtles is still a common practice among rural populations in Asia (Jensen and Das 2008; Suzuki et al. 2015; Van et al. 2019), Papua New-Guinea (Georges et al. 2008), the United States (Roman and Bowen 2000), and Latin America (Ferronato and Cruzado 2013; Norris and Michalski 2013; Pantoja-Lima et al. 2014), for which they are a traditional source of protein and can be part of local people's festival cuisines (Schneider et al. 2011). Consumption of Trachemys species by local people has been documented in the Dominican Republic (Schubert 1993), Jamaica (Tuberville et al. 2005), Cuba (Gonzales Alonso et al. 2012), Mexico (Stuart and Ward 2009), and Colombia (Múnera et al. 2004). However, in Haiti the regular consumption of meat and eggs of T. decorata seems to concern only a part of the human population, mainly rural and/or poor people, whereas more-educated members of the middle and upper classes show little interest in such food. Future studies might be useful to ascertain the level of demand for meat from T. decorata in Haiti.

A certain proportion of the freshwater turtles caught by fishers at Trou Caïman are sold or kept as pets. Strong harvest pressure in relation to the pet trade has been documented in several freshwater species (Schoppe et al. 2010; Lyons et al. 2013), particularly in Trachemys scripta elegans (Brown et al. 2011). It is, however, difficult to assess precisely the impact of the sales in pet trade on T. decorata populations in Haiti, as some turtles can be kept for a while as a pet animal before being eaten or used in a voodoo ritual. On the other hand, the introduction of T. scripta elegans for the pet trade in Haiti remains undocumented, such that it is difficult to know to what extent the importation of freshwater turtles may reduce the demand for native ones (aside from the problem arising from release in the wild and subsequent hybridization; see Paul et al. 2022).

The present study is, to the best of our knowledge, the first to report the use of freshwater turtles to clean water in hand-dug wells. Water resources, especially potable water, are rare and limited for most Haitians (Gleick 2002), and household water insecurity can be a source of anxiety and concern for many of them (Brewis et al. 2019). In areas where the water table is close to the land surface, household water needs such as cooking, laundry, and bathing can be supplied by hand-dug wells (Troester and Turvey 2004; Schram and Wampler 2018). Using the water from hand-dug wells for laundry and cooking is, however, risky if adequate precautions are not taken. Schram and Wampler (2018) recently evidenced the risk for coliform and Escherichia coli contamination spread through food preparation and laundering practices using water from hand-dug wells in Haiti. However, their study took place in the Artibonite Valley region, about 100 km northwest of our study site. The presence of freshwater turtles in hand-dug wells could be a further source of contamination by pathogens for human populations in Haiti, particularly by bacteria of the genus Salmonella (Gaertner et al. 2008; Readel et al. 2010; Penagos Gaviria et al. 2018). Future studies should address the potential role of freshwater turtles in the infection of human populations by Salmonella in rural Haiti (Jackson et al. 2011; see also Navab-Daneshmand et al. 2018), possibly through comparing levels of infection between voodoo practitioners and nonpractitioners.

Both the slaughtering of Hispaniolan sliders and the poor conditions under which they are kept in captivity in Haiti (Paul et al. 2022) raise obvious concerns about animal welfare (Hampton and Hyndman 2018). Health issues of captive Trachemys species are not peculiar to Haiti (see Castro Cortés et al. 2022) and deserve further consideration, as they may also extend to human beings through the development of transmissible pathogens (Dodds 2019). Unnecessary pain or suffering, including negligence and torture (most often by young children in the case of captive T. decorata in Haiti) arising from brutal killing methods and inadequate husbandry should be avoided. This issue is, however, complex, as implementing international standards of animal welfare in developing countries might be irrelevant (Rahman et al. 2005). On the other hand, animal cruelty can lead to interpersonal violence (Mota-Rojas et al. 2022), such that it is important to understand its determinants, particularly in Haiti, where both organized and domestic violence are recurring problems (Bolton et al. 2012; Marcelin 2015; Bermudez et al. 2019), with severe effects on children's physical integrity (Flynn-O'Brien et al. 2016). Although it remains unclear to what extent animal cruelty in Haiti is both a consequence of interpersonal violence experienced in childhood and a clue to future violent behavior as adults (Mota-Rojas et al. 2022), we recommend developing animal welfare education for young Haitian children in the future. Such activities, possibly using soft toys to enhance empathy (see Williams et al. 2022), could cover key elements of turtle behavior and natural history, welfare needs, safe handling, and care. Such educational programs should, however, be appropriate with regard to the Haitian cultural context.

Indeed, our results shed some new light on the use of animals in the voodoo religion in Haiti. So far, to the best of our knowledge, the use of freshwater turtles in the Haitian voodoo tradition has not been documented in the literature. No mention of turtles is made, for instance, in the review of Afro-Caribbean religions by Murrell (2009) nor in the seminal contributions of Marcelin (1947) and Rigaud (1953), although both refer to the symbolism of snakes (couleuvre madeleine or couleuvre verte, corresponding to the tree snake Uromacer castebyi) and lizards (soud in Haitian creole, Celestus costatus) in the Haitian voodoo. Similarly, the use of turtles in the traditional medicine of Haiti is not included in the review of Vonarx (2008), while the detailed ethnopharmalogical study of Weniger et al. (1986) in the Central Plateau of Haiti only documents the use of plants. However, Vedrine (2005) reports the use of a concoction of Aloe vera juice and turtle blood to make the blood of young children bitter as a protection against evil spirits, which is in accordance with the present study. The origin of the use of turtles in the voodoo ritual is, however, unclear. It may lie in the African origins of Haitian voodoo (Vonarx 2008; Murrell 2009), as freshwater turtles are still used today for traditional medicine (Luiselli 2009) and sold on fetish markets (Segniagbeto et al. 2013) in Sub-Saharan countries. It might also have been influenced by cross-cultural exchanges with Amerindians because the Taino, who inhabited Hispaniola at the time the first African slaves arrived (Curet 2014), were revering turtles (Oliver 2009). If the association between freshwater turtles and increased longevity is shared with some cultures (Perolini 1988; Gong et al. 2006), other ritual usages unraveled in the present study appear to be more peculiar to the Haitian voodoo.

As the voodoo permeates the practices and knowledge of most Haitian therapists, resulting in a medical-religious pluralism (Vonarx 2008), the influence of the voodoo religion on attitudes toward environmental and conservations issues in Haiti clearly deserves further consideration (Merceron and Yelkouni 2012; Gentes and Vergara-Castro 2015). In the case of T. decorata, it is important to appreciate to what extent a conflict may exist between the religious beliefs of a large part of the Haitian population and the conservation of a vertebrate species of high patrimonial value. In that respect, the present study suggests that religious practice may not necessarily contribute to conservation as often emphasized (Platt et al. 2008; Ferronato and Cruzado 2013; Macrae and Whiting 2014; Infield et al. 2017), but can also conflict with it.

Trachemys decorata is currently listed as Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List, based on limited information (Tortoise & Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group 1996). However, the species may suffer from both overharvesting and hybridization with invasive Trachemys species (Paul et al. 2022), and its distribution in Haiti appears to be limited to a few sites (J.M. Paul, unpubl. data, 2021). In addition, the ongoing environmental degradation in Haiti and climate change, particularly affecting wetlands (Blanc-Civil 2021; Moknatian and Piasecki 2021), may further reduce the extent of suitable habitat for the species in the future. Although further research should assess to what extent what we observed at Trou Caïman is representative of what exists in other areas where the species is present in significant numbers, some recommendations can be advanced for the conservation of T. decorata in Haiti. The voodoo tradition is, to a large degree, consubstantial to Haitian culture and identity (Couchard 1996; Houtart and Remy 2000), despite recurrent attempts by the western culture to eradicate it (Vonarx 2008; Hebblethwaite 2014; Télusma 2017). Any attempt to implement a conservation plan for T. decorata in Haiti must therefore take into account the present situation in all its dimensions. In the context of general poverty, high demand for food, spiritual beliefs, and weak state capacity, a prohibition of the capture, use, and consumption of freshwater turtles in rural Haiti seems both unrealistic and inappropriate. One way to contribute to the conservation of T. decorata could then be to promote the development of small-size ecofarming as part of a coordinated captive breeding and educational program.

The pros and cons of reptile farms have been extensively debated (Revol 1995; Lyons and Natusch 2011; Moyle 2013; Aust et al. 2017; Nuno et al. 2017), including the case of freshwater turtles (Haitao et al. 2007; Drury 2009; Spencer et al. 2017). Although developing a detailed economic model (see Gelabert et al. 2017) of the development of freshwater turtle farming in Haiti is beyond the scope of the present article, it is possible to consider some key aspects in relation to the Haitian context. The efficacy of wildlife farming depends on several criteria (Tensen 2016). First, it is important that consumers show no preference for wild-caught animals, a factor that needs to be precisely evaluated in the present case. It appears, however, that Haitian consumers are not particular regarding the origin of the turtles they purchase in public markets. Another important aspect is the extent to which a substantial part of the demand can be met and whether demand might increase due to increased availability. So far, the precise demand for T. decorata in Haiti has not been estimated. According to a recent estimate (United States Commission on International Religious Freedom 2018), only 2.1% of the Haitian population (10.8 million people) are adepts of the voodoo religion. However, 50% to 80% of the population may practice some form of voodoo, often blended with elements of other religions, usually Christianity.

One way to appreciate the demand for freshwater turtles would be to conduct surveys in local markets. However, the fact that no fisher has specialized on the capture of turtles suggests that the demand remains moderate. It might also be concentrated in some parts of the Haitian territory and decrease in the future with, hopefully, increasing levels of education and literacy. In that respect, the educational programs referred to above might be instrumental. Obviously, an important issue would be the price of turtle meat produced through ecofarming. While offering turtle meat at an affordable price might increase the demand locally, it may also decrease harvest pressure on natural populations. Turtle farming could be cost efficient, especially if fishers (who experience diminishing returns from the fishing activity) convert to farming. Under such a scenario, the benefits of turtle farming may extend to other species harvested by local fishers. In addition, turtle farming, if properly managed, may decrease the risk of contamination with pathogens associated with the consumption of turtle meat. The implementation of a regular, sanitary monitoring program may be necessary in order to ensure early detection of potential zoonoses possibly associated with environmental change (Patz et al. 2000; Jones et al. 2013).

We recommend investigating the potential for freshwater turtle farming in Haiti, conducted on a small, artisanal scale, with a quota system to efficiently promote conservation and avoid potentially adverse consequences (Bulte and Damania 2005; Janssen and Chng 2017). An interesting opportunity lies in the co-culture of turtle with rice (Hu et al. 2016). Haiti's rice imports now account for 80% of local consumption, mainly from the United States (Cochrane et al. 2016). Converting some of the existing rice culture to rice-turtle co-culture could help agricultural rebound in Haiti, where about 145,000 farm households depend on agriculture (Molnar et al. 2015), and this might also contribute to the implementation of new agricultural techniques to reduce the projected negative impact of climate change on rice production in Haiti (Nicolas et al. 2020). One potential limit is associated with the use of fertilizers or pesticides in rice fields and their potential negative effect on freshwater turtles (de Solla et al. 2001; de Solla and Martin 2007; Keithmaleesatti et al. 2009; Héritier et al. 2017), especially those with soft, flexible-shelled eggs such as Trachemys species (Wu et al. 2016). However, the risk appears to be particularly low, for several reasons. First, most farmers in Haiti do not use agrochemicals to improve their production, simply because they cannot afford to buy the few products that are available on the market (Bargout and Raizada 2013; Moya et al. 2019; Severe et al. 2019). Second, rice-aquatic animal co-culture is precisely a cost-effective way of increasing food production and soil fertility without resorting to agrochemical products (Zhang et al. 2016; Wu et al. 2021; Guo et al. 2022; Li et al. 2022). Improved rice production could then act to reduce the country's import bill and strengthen national earnings. The relevance of turtle-rice co-culture to agricultural development and conservation in Haiti thus deserves further consideration.

In an initial step, the development of turtle farming could start with the establishment of a captive breeding program of a pure lineage of T. decorata, given concerns about the level of hybridization with congeneric Trachemys species in both the Dominican Republic and Haiti (Parham et al. 2013; Paul et al. 2022). Such a long-term program would also be a perfect opportunity for the training of young local scientists, which the country greatly needs. It could, in particular, contribute to the control of hybrid individuals in the wild, allow the close examination of turtle behavior in order to increase postrelease success (Allard et al. 2019) and, ultimately, result in the reinforcement of natural populations of T. decorata (see Carstairs et al. 2019). It could also provide a good opportunity to devise a scientifically tested, humane slaughter method for Hispaniolan sliders (see Flint et al. 2017). Finally, the association of the development of artisanal turtle farming should be closely associated with education campaigns aiming at reducing the number of turtles collected from wild populations.

Integrating the various usages made of patrimonial species in the global assessment of conservation threats is particularly important for species living in regions of the world where field research is limited by logistic or economic constraints. In that respect, conservation actions, such as the protection of T. decorata in Haiti, would greatly benefit from being conducted in a more integrated way, involving both the development of local scientific expertise in conservation biology and socio-economic development through agriculture, while explicitly taking the cultural context into account.