Media-Reported Seizures. —

We recorded 30 seizures from India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, which reported at least 5351.5 kg of calipee seized, translating to an approximate of 133,787.5 kg to 246,169 kg of turtles. We recorded some of the largest calipee seizures in the region from Pakistan. In 2007, media recorded 2 seizures from Pakistan: 1 seizure at Karachi Airport involving 700 kg of calipee that was destined for Beijing, China, and another seizure in Peshawar, for which the quantity of confiscated calipee was not specified. In 2015 we recorded a 1900 kg calipee seizure at the Karachi seaport, the largest known seizure from the region, that was destined for Hong Kong. Both the 700 kg and 1900 kg consignments were labeled as “dried fish” products (Bhagwandas 2007; Ilyas 2015). In 2017 we recorded a consignment of 16 kg of calipee seized at Karachi Airport that was destined for Hong Kong. Overall, we documented 4 verified calipee seizures from Pakistan, totaling 2616 kg of calipee between 2007 and 2017 (see Table 1).

Table 1. Year-wise weight of calipee seizures made from South Asia. For India, we have used a combination of media articles, literature, field-based information, and data published by the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB 2022). All data for Pakistan and Bangladesh are based on media articles. The calculation for the quantity of dried calipee extracted per kg of turtle is based on literature (Das et al. 2010) and field-based information (Ramya Roopa, unpubl. data).

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We found 3 calipee seizures from Bangladesh in the media—120 kg in 2011, 40 kg in 2015, and 8 kg in 2019. All seizures were made close to the international border with India, and the media reports indicated that the consignments were in transit from India to East Asia via Bangladesh. In addition to these, there was 1 seizure in Hong Kong in January 2024 consisting of 1400 kg of dried calipee, labeled as “dried seafood” that had originated from Bangladesh.

We recorded 22 seizures from India, which accounted for 1167.5 kg of calipee in the period from 2007 to January 2024. At least 12 of these seizures were made in the state of Uttar Pradesh (UP) in north India, which is likely to be one of the major sources of calipee. Experts quoted in media reports identified tributaries of the Yamuna and Chambal in UP as major collection landscapes (Qureshi 2018). Seven seizures, including 2 seizures of more than 200 kg (see Table 1), were from the districts along the international border with Bangladesh. News reports indicated that these consignments were being trafficked from India into Bangladesh. At least 6 seizures were made at railway stations or within trains, highlighting the exploitation of rail networks for calipee trafficking within India. Seizures in India and Bangladesh indicate trafficking from West Bengal into Bangladesh through land crossing via the district of Malda and Dakshin Dinajpur—as indicated by 6 seizures on the India side of the border and 3 on the Bangladesh side (see Fig. 3 and Table 1).

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It is hard to ascertain the species involved in these seizures. Images and even physical examination of the calipee seized often do not provide any information on the species involved. Further, the absence of good quality DNA in cartilage (calipee) as compared to that in bone or meat limits the use of genetic analysis for species identification (Kolby 2021). However, information available from literature (presented below) suggests that the trade disproportionately targets N. gangetica, N. hurum, C. indica, and N. leithii.

Literature References to Calipee Trade. —

Given the inconsistency in the use of terms corresponding to “calipee” and the lack of photographic evidence across publications, it is unclear exactly when this trade began. High volume of trade in “turtle body parts” from South Asia eastward to China, Hong Kong, and Japan has been recorded from the late 1970s and early 1980s (Moll 1982; Whitaker 1982; Das 1990); however, it is not clear if this included calipee. The earliest clear reports of commercial trade in calipee (confirmed by photographs) have come from Pakistan from the early 2000s (Noureen and Khan 2007a, 2007b), and this also provides the first indications of international trade in calipee.

In Pakistan, hunting of N. gangetica, N. hurum, and C. indica for their “plastron and chest pellicle”, which correspond to calipee as defined by Kolby (2021) has been recorded along the Indus River and its tributaries (Noureen and Khan 2007a, 2007b; Noureen 2009; Noureen et al. 2012). Specifically, calipee collected from sites in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, and Sindh were transported to major cities such as Karachi and Lahore through a network of middlemen for further export eastward to China (including over land to western China and over sea to Hong Kong) and other parts of East Asia (Baig 2006; Noureen and Khan 2007a, 2007b; Noureen 2009). According to Noureen (2009) most of the softshell turtle extraction in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and in Punjab provinces had been for turtle body parts (identified as “calipee” from images in her publications).

In Bangladesh, “badi” or the “cartilaginous flaps” of softshell turtles, primarily N. gangetica and N. hurum that die in holding centers, were sold to Japan and China, specifically Hong Kong (Das 1990). In addition, the Export Promotion Bureau of Bangladesh has recorded legal export in “fins” of turtles, among other products, such as meat, eggs, and live animals between the financial years 1977–1978 and 1985–1986 (Anonymous 1987); it is unclear, however, if “fins” refer to calipee and which species were part of this export.

In India, C. indica, N. gangetica, and N. hurum, all of which are endangered, are hunted for calipee (local name used in eastern India: “baad” or “badi”) across the Gangetic floodplains (Das and Singh 2009; Das et al. 2010). Similarly, N. leithii, faces severe exploitation in the Tungabhadra, Krishna, and Bhima drainages in southern India (Sirsi 2011; Das et al. 2014). Recent IUCN assessments of these species indicate a shift in trade from live animals to calipee across parts of South Asia (Ahmed et al. 2021; Das et al. 2021; Praschag et al. 2021). This trend is further corroborated by field-based information from parts of eastern India that reveal the targeted hunting of softshell turtles (Nilssonia spp. and C. indica) for calipee, while the meat is often locally consumed or discarded (Ramya Roopa and S. Dey, unpubl. data; F. Khudsar, pers. comm.). Likewise, extensive hunting of N. leithii for its calipee as documented in surveys between 2010 and 2011 (Sirsi 2011) has resulted in significant population decline resulting in expansion of hunting activities into new areas along the Bhima and Narmada rivers (S. Sirsi, pers. comm.).

We found no evidence for the use of other softshell turtle species from South Asia in the calipee trade from our literature review. However, it is unclear if this represents a gap in the literature, or if other species are indeed not used for this trade. It can be argued that in the case of the black softshell turtle (Nilssonia nigricans, Critically Endangered; IUCN 2024), which is morphologically similar to other Nilssonia species found in the trade and present in the same landscape, there may be a gap in the literature given the rarity and restricted range of this species. Literature records and field-based information also do not indicate the use of L. punctata for the calipee trade, which is otherwise one of the most common and most trafficked softshell turtle species in the region (Mendiratta et al. 2017). However, it is possible that as populations of large-bodied softshell turtles decline, cartilaginous plastral parts of L. punctata may be mixed in to cater to the demand.

The ultimate uses and markets for calipee appear to be in food and medicinal products in destination countries such as China (especially Hong Kong), Japan, Vietnam, Taiwan, and Korea (Das 1990; Noureen and Khan 2007a, 2007b; Das and Singh 2009; Noureen 2009; Das et al. 2010; Noureen et al. 2012). Many turtle-based products popular in East Asia have been associated with turtle body parts. These include traditional medicines made from turtle shells (carapace and plastron), such as “Biejia” and “Gui-Ban” (Moll 1982), “Guijia” and “Guijiajiao” (Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission 2020), and “Guilinggao” (Chen et al. 2009). Turtle body parts are also used in the preparation of “Suppon” cuisines in Japan. However, it is unclear to us if and how many of these products use softshell turtle calipee, and how much of that is sourced from wild populations in South Asia, as opposed to turtle farms in China and other countries.