Bushmeat, the flesh of wild animals, is an important source of protein for many people (Chardonnet et al. 2002) and takes on an unusual importance in the diet and cultures of many indigenous peoples of the tropics. Although hunting itself has some support (e.g., Feer 1994), there is much opposition to the activity (Robinson and Bennett 2000), based on either ethical or conservation grounds. Legislation in many parts of the world, nonetheless, permits harvest, largely with the goal of achieving sustainability and also for public support of conservation (Keylock 2002).

Hunting of wild turtles for food has been a long-term human occupation, as indicated from studies of kitchen middens and archaeological sites from all continents (Adler 1970; Rhodin 1995; Rybczynski et al. 1996; Earl of Cranbrook 2000; Erlandson 2001; Široký et al. 2004), and one presumed effect is reduction of body size, as reported from comparison of recent populations with conspecifics in the fossil record (e.g., Lydekker 1889; Bour 1980). Although a number of reported extinctions from the Plio-Pleistocene records have been proved false (e.g., Das 1991e.g., Das 1994), recovery of undescribed turtle species has been reported from human material remains in some localities, such as one in Zaire (Meylan 1990). In a contemporary context, human utilization of turtles is both widespread and locally intensive where populations permit their use, leading to serious conservation problems (Thorbjarnarson et al. 2000).

Most of the attention to the global turtle crisis has been directed to China, the primary consumer of turtles in recent years, rather than to most other adjacent or regional Asian countries, which are the sources or potential sources of turtles in the trade. One such area is Borneo, the world's third largest island, located in the Malay Archipelago and considered a center of global biodiversity. The island is under the jurisdiction of three countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei Darussalam. Sarawak is one of the 2 Malaysian states located on the island (Fig. 1), the other being Sabah. The dominant ethnic group of Sarawak is Iban; other important indigenous groups include the Bidayuh, Kelabit, Lun Bawang, Melenau, Kenyah, Kayan, and other more marginalized nomadic groups, such as the Penans. In urban centers and coastal regions, more recent immigrants include the Chinese and Malay.

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Perceptions of wildlife and their use as food may vary with the group concerned. For instance, Malays (and many Melanaus) are followers of Islam, which prohibits the consumption of turtle flesh (considering it “haram,” or unlawful food), on account of the amphibious nature of a majority of these species. Nonetheless, eggs may be consumed by some. For a majority of the indigenous groups in Borneo, turtle is a source of occasional protein, harvested incidentally when hunting in the forest for bearded pigs or other larger game or caught deliberately by fishermen using baited line or by finding them in the mud in shallow sections of rivers. For the generally more affluent Chinese, turtles represent both an expensive delicacy, served in seafood restaurants, and a source of medicine for treatment of a variety of ailments (Read 1937).

The most recent island-specific identification guide to the turtle fauna of Borneo is that of Lim and Das (1999). Native nonmarine turtle species previously noted from Sarawak include 2 softshell species (Family Trionychidae), the Asian softshell turtle (Amyda cartilaginea) and the Malayan softshell turtle (Dogania subplana). Hard-shell turtles known from Sarawak include 7 species from the family Geoemydidae: the painted terrapin (Batagur borneoensis), the Malayan box turtle (Cuora amboinensis), the Asian leaf turtle (Cyclemys dentata), the spiny hill turtle (Heosemys spinosa), the Malayan flat-shelled turtle (Notochelys platynota), the Asian giant turtle (Orlitia borneensis), and the black pond turtle (Siebenrockiella crassicollis); and 1 species from the family Testudinidae, the Asian brown tortoise (Manouria emys). Two nonnative turtle species are known to be established in some parts of Sarawak (Lim and Das 1999; Jensen and Das 2006): these are the Chinese softshell turtle (Pelodiscus sinensis) and the red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta).

Commercial trade of reptiles in Sarawak has been banned since 1998 (Sarawak Government Gazette 1998). Upon entry into Malaysia in 1963, Sarawak was granted special rights and powers, not provided for the states within Peninsular Malaysia, to enact legislation autonomously (Sarawak Government Gazette 1998, Sharma and Tisen 2000). The Wildlife Protection Ordinance was created in 1998. Orlitia borneensis and B. borneoensis are listed as Totally Protected, and M. emys, A. cartilaginea, and D. subplana are listed as Protected.

The objective of this paper is to summarize information on the use of and trade in tortoises and freshwater turtles in Sarawak. Certain species such as A. cartilaginea are assumed to be declining range-wide, but there is no published information highlighting current exploitation in Sarawak, nor indeed anywhere within Borneo.

Methods. — Data were collected via interviews in longhouses and surveys of wet markets in Sarawak (administrative districts referred to in the text shown in Fig. 2) between the years 2003 and 2005. Interviews followed a structured questionnaire. Wet markets were visited in Sarawak's capital city of Kuching (Satok Market, Tabuan Jaya, and Batu 7), longhouses and logging camps in the Bintulu district (Rumah Biol, the Log Pond logging camp, Rumah Suran, Rumah Ngum-bang, and the Gabung Camp), longhouses near Gunung Mulu National Park (Long Iman, Long Terawan, Long Panai, and the new Penan settlement), and 2 longhouses surrounding Loagan Bunut National Park (Long Teru and Long Meran); there was an isolated visit to Long Sukang, and visits to wet markets in the towns of Serian, Balai Ringin, Bako, Lundu, Sematan, Sarekei, Simunjun, Daro, Miri, Mukah, Bintulu, as well as the Indonesian border markets of Tebedu and Serikin. Longhouses are essentially an entire village under one roof. Many of the indigenous peoples of Sarawak still live in these longhouses, and the larger ones can have more than 100 families under one roof. They are divided into separate apartments with a common hall or veranda. Information on turtles seen at the Sibu wet market was provided by M. Azlan (pers. comm., 2006).

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Recent prices of animal products used for food were recorded. In addition to the prices of turtles, this included chicken and pork parts found at the Satok, Kuching, wet market. In examining the prices of fish, only local freshwater fish species were recorded. These were Ikan Haruan (Channa striatus), Ikan Toman (Channa micropeltes), Ikan Baong (Hemibagrus nemurus), and Ikan Kali (Clarias nieuhofii). Prices were recorded in Malaysian Ringgit (RM) (RM 3.71 = $US 1 as of 18 March 2006). Beef or lamb products, although consumed in Sarawak, are generally imported from overseas, and the prices reflect this; therefore, these animal products are not included. Pet shops were also visited, and if turtles were seen for sale, that information was recorded.

Results. — Turtles appear to be used primarily for food and on a smaller scale for pets or socio-religious purposes. The most desirable species seems to be A. cartilaginea. Prior to the passing of Sarawak's Wildlife Protection Ordnance, many species of wildlife could be seen for sale along Indonesian border areas such as Serikin. Up to 2002, a variety of wild mammal, bird, and reptile species, including Asian box turtles (Cuora amboinensis), were sold at the Serikin market on the weekends (Das, unpubl. data). On 2 visits made during 2004 and 2005, no wildlife was for sale, at least not openly. There were numerous Sarawak law enforcement vehicles and uniformed men patrolling the market.

Turtles at wet markets may be for sale, but not openly, perhaps because of enforcement by officials from the State Asset Protection Unit of the Sarawak Forestry Corporation and/or the Sarawak Forest Department. Only at a few markets would they show any turtles for sale. Amyda cartilaginea was found for sale as a food item at Balai Ringin and Serian. Fishermen offered A. cartilaginea for RM 10/kg, but it cost considerably more from fish mongers, at RM 25/kg. In other markets (Bintulu, Daro), softshell turtles were priced at RM 24/kg. Softshell turtles were the most expensive animal, with chicken prices at RM 6.50/kg, pork at RM 5/kg, Ikan Haruan at RM 8/kg, Ikan Toman at RM 8/kg, Ikan Baong at RM 12/kg, and Ikan Kali at RM 12/kg.

Occasionally, turtles could be seen for sale in pet sections of wet markets, alongside puppies, rabbits, and tropical fishes. These were most often T. scripta, native to North America, and also the locally occurring Cuora amboinensis. This species was also seen at the Satok Sunday Market in Kuching, and the Kuching, Daro, and Sibu wet markets, with price per individual ranging between RM 8 and RM 10.

Turtles were also seen for sale in Kuching pet and aquarium shops. Species seen were Cuora amboinensis, P. sinensis, Carettochelys insculpta, T. scripta, Geochelone elegans, Chelydra serpentina, Indotestudo elongata, and Malacochersus tornieri. At aquarium shops that primarily deal with ornamental fish for homes and gardens in Miri and Daro, T. scripta were seen for sale.

Interviews with turtle hunters and fishermen at longhouses indicated that A. cartilaginea is a prized food item. Some people, especially the Penan, use both the eggs and meat of softshell turtles. In the more remote areas of Sarawak, hunting practices are generally traditional and have a long history. The most frequently used methods of catching turtles are either baited hooks or muddling for them during the dry season. Muddling during the dry season may yield more turtles; although, the effort is labor intensive. We did not find the use of dogs to locate forest turtles, as reported from Indochina by Espenshade and Le (2002) and Holloway (2003). Turtles are opportunistically taken in fishing nets and native traps (bubu and selambau) and are targeted along with fish by using baited hooks. Bait use varied across Sarawak, from chicken or pig parts to various fish. However, most turtle hunters agreed that the best bait was Ikan Kali (Clarias nieuhofii). Other reptile species are incidentally caught either by baited hook or in traditional traps. These include the water monitor (Varanus salvator), the elephant-trunk snake (Acrochordus javanicus), the puff-faced water snake (Homalopsis buccata), and the mangrove cat snake (Boiga dendrophila). The monitor lizards and snakes would always be kept for personal consumption or for sale. However, at least in Balai Ringin, mangrove cat snakes, suspected to be mildly venomous, were routinely impaled on tree branches and left to decompose.

Turtles in remote areas are used mainly for subsistence and, in some cases, localized trade. There is no evidence of medicinal or religious importance of turtles in Sarawak culture, but occasionally skeletal remains of turtles were seen hanging in longhouses alongside the stuffed heads of mouse deer or pangolins. In some cases, along Sungei Tutoh, softshell turtles were saved and sold to restaurants in Miri, the largest town in the division. In Balai Ringin and Serian, buyers from Kuching restaurants were seen purchasing softshell turtles from fishermen. The nonnative P. sinensis has occasionally been observed for sale on the streets of downtown Kuching (Jensen and Das 2006). The sellers always stated that the animals were caught in the nearby Sungei Kuching. Additionally, a few individuals of this species have been found on the road in Kuching, especially on rainy nights.

Discussion. — Turtles appear to be a cash crop if caught, and this may indicate market pressure on the animals. With a market price of RM 24–25/kg, a small adult A. cartilaginea at 2–3 kg could be sold for RM 48–75. A study of wildlife use in Sarawak from 1995 (Abdullah 1996) indicated that softshell turtles were being sold in Kuching for RM 14–16/kg. This increase in price in Sarawak, from between 36% and 41% in 10 years, may be an indication of the increased rarity of the animal combined with fact that the softshell turtles are now protected by law. General inflation in the region remained under 5% over the same period.

In addition to their monetary value, A. cartilaginea are attractive from a market perspective because they stay alive for days without food in small, confined spaces, relative to other species of game or fish. Many people will place an opportunistically caught turtle in a basin or tank of water until a special occasion arises to eat it, or an opportunity occurs to sell it. This is important in rural communities without refrigeration, for fishermen on multiday fishing trips, and for shipping turtles to towns from upriver. Also, these turtles are a luxury item for those who have relocated to urban areas and may live more than a day's journey away from their longhouses but maintain cultural and dietary preferences from home. They continue to eat wild meat even when they have easily available alternatives (Bennett and Robinson 2000). During interviews with residents from longhouses in the Bintulu area, some people stated that it was easier to drive to Bintulu or Miri and purchase a softshell turtle than to hunt them.

We found no records of the volume of the turtle trade in Sarawak and no historical records of population abundance of any nonmarine turtle species. However, given the life history and ecology of most turtle species, it is doubtful whether present levels of exploitation are sustainable. Congdon et al. (1993) demonstrated that long-lived organisms such as turtles have life history traits that severely constrain the ability of populations to respond to disturbances such as overexploitation.

Freshwater turtles and tortoises are clearly an important part of the local culture in Sarawak, especially in the traditional diet of a majority of its indigenous people. Comprehensive surveys of the turtle trade in Sarawak are needed to determine the level of exploitation and whether there is also export to the international wildlife market. Also needed are turtle-specific education programs by local governmental agencies and nongovernmental organizations and implementation of protected areas for their conservation, where possible and desirable.